第十四章 内战

Source / 原文：https://www.americanyawp.com/text/14-the-civil-war/

I. Introduction

一、引言

The American Civil War, the bloodiest in the nation’s history, resulted in approximately 750,000 deaths. The war touched the life of nearly every American as military mobilization reached levels never seen before or since. Most northern soldiers went to war to preserve the Union, but the war ultimately transformed into a struggle to eradicate slavery. African Americans, both enslaved and free, pressed the issue of emancipation and nurtured this transformation. Simultaneously, women thrust themselves into critical wartime roles while navigating a world without many men of military age. The Civil War was a defining event in the history of the United States and, for the Americans thrust into it, a wrenching one.

美国内战，是美国历史上最为血腥的战争，造成了约75万人死亡。这场战争几乎触及到每一个美国人的生活，因为军队动员达到了前所未有的规模。大多数北方士兵参战是为了保卫联邦，但战争最终转变为一场根除奴隶制的斗争。无论是被奴役的黑人还是自由黑人，都推动了废奴的进程并培养了这一转变。与此同时，女性积极投身关键的战争角色，在没有大量适龄男性的世界中努力寻找自己的位置。内战是美国历史中的一个决定性事件，对身处其中的美国人而言，也是一段痛苦的历程。

II. The Election of 1860 and Secession

二、1860年选举与分裂

The 1860 presidential election was chaotic. In April, the Democratic Party convened in Charleston, South Carolina, the bastion of secessionist thought in the South. The goal was to nominate a candidate for the party ticket, but the party was deeply divided. Northern Democrats pulled for Senator Stephen Douglas, a champion of popular sovereignty, while southern Democrats were intent on endorsing someone other than Douglas. The parties leaders’ refusal to include a pro-slavery platform resulted in southern delegates walking out of the convention, preventing Douglas from gaining the two-thirds majority required for a nomination. The Democrats ended up with two presidential candidates. A subsequent convention in Baltimore nominated Douglas, while southerners nominated the current vice president, John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, as their presidential candidate. The nation’s oldest party had split over differences in policy toward slavery.

1860年的总统选举充满了混乱。4月，民主党在南卡罗来纳州查尔斯顿召开大会，这是南方分裂思想的发源地。大会的目标是提名一名党内候选人，但党内深深分裂。北方民主党支持参议员斯蒂芬·道格拉斯，他主张人民主权，而南方民主党则坚持提名与道格拉斯不同的候选人。由于党内领导者拒绝采纳支持奴隶制的平台，导致南方代表们在大会上退场，阻止了道格拉斯获得提名所需的三分之二多数。结果，民主党出现了两位总统候选人。随后的巴尔的摩大会上，民主党提名了道格拉斯，而南方代表提名了时任副总统约翰·C·布雷肯里奇（来自肯塔基州）为候选人。美国最古老的政党在奴隶制问题上发生了严重分裂。

Initially, the Republicans were hardly unified around a single candidate themselves. Several leading Republican men vied for their party’s nomination. A consensus emerged at the May 1860 convention that the party’s nominee would need to carry all the free states—for only in that situation could a Republican nominee potentially win. New York Senator William Seward, a leading contender, was passed over. Seward’s pro-immigrant position posed a potential obstacle, particularly in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, as a relatively unknown but likable politician, rose from a pool of potential candidates and was selected by the delegates on the third ballot. The electoral landscape was further complicated through the emergence of a fourth candidate, Tennessee’s John Bell, heading the Constitutional Union Party. The Constitutional Unionists, composed of former Whigs who teamed up with some southern Democrats, made it their mission to avoid the specter of secession while doing little else to address the issues tearing the country apart.

最初，共和党内部也并未团结在一个候选人周围。几位主要的共和党人物都争取党的提名。1860年5月的大会上，达成了一项共识，即共和党候选人必须赢得所有自由州——只有这样，共和党候选人才能有可能胜选。纽约参议员威廉·斯图尔德是主要竞争者，但他因支持移民的立场在宾夕法尼亚州和新泽西州面临障碍，因此被淘汰。来自伊利诺伊州的亚伯拉罕·林肯，作为一个相对不知名但令人喜爱的政治人物，在候选人中脱颖而出，并在第三轮投票中被提名。选举局势更加复杂，因为田纳西州的约翰·贝尔成为了宪法联盟党的候选人。宪法联盟党由曾是辉格党的成员和部分南方民主党人组成，他们的目标是避免分裂，但在其他问题上几乎没有采取行动。

Abraham Lincoln’s nomination proved a great windfall for the Republican Party. Lincoln carried all free states with the exception of New Jersey (which he split with Douglas). Of the voting electorate, 81.2 percent came out to vote—at that point the highest ever for a presidential election. Lincoln received less than 40 percent of the popular vote, but with the field so split, that percentage yielded 180 electoral votes. Lincoln was trailed by Breckinridge with his 72 electoral votes, carrying eleven of the fifteen slave states; Bell came in third with 39 electoral votes; and Douglas came in last, only able to garner 12 electoral votes despite carrying almost 30 percent of the popular vote. Since the Republican platform prohibited the expansion of slavery in future western states, all future Confederate states, with the exception of Virginia, excluded Lincoln’s name from their ballots.

亚伯拉罕·林肯的提名对共和党来说是一次巨大的胜利。林肯赢得了所有自由州，除了新泽西州（他与道格拉斯分票）。总投票率为81.2%，是当时最高的选举投票率。林肯的普选票不到40%，但由于选票高度分裂，他获得了180张选举人票。布雷肯里奇以72张选举人票紧随其后，赢得了15个奴隶州中的11个；贝尔以39张选举人票排名第三；而道格拉斯则仅获得12张选举人票，尽管他赢得了几乎30%的普选票。由于共和党平台禁止在未来的西部州扩展奴隶制，所有未来的南方邦联州（除了弗吉尼亚州）都没有把林肯列入选票。

The election of Lincoln and the perceived threat to the institution of slavery proved too much for the deep southern states. South Carolina acted almost immediately, calling a convention to declare secession. On December 20, 1860, the South Carolina convention voted unanimously 169–0 to dissolve their union with the United States. The other states across the Deep South quickly followed suit. Mississippi adopted their own resolution on January 9, 1861, Florida followed on January 10, Alabama on January 11, Georgia on January 19, Louisiana on January 26, and Texas on February 1. Texas was the only state to put the issue up for a popular vote, but secession was widely popular throughout the South.

林肯的当选以及奴隶制制度受到威胁的感知，最终让深南方的州无法忍受。南卡罗来纳州几乎立即采取了行动，召集大会宣布脱离联邦。1860年12月20日，南卡罗来纳州大会一致通过了169票对0票的决议，宣布与美国脱离。其他深南方州迅速跟随其后。密西西比州在1861年1月9日通过了自己的决议，佛罗里达州在1月10日跟进，阿拉巴马州在1月11日，乔治亚州在1月19日，路易斯安那州在1月26日，德克萨斯州在2月1日也加入其中。德克萨斯州是唯一一个将脱离联邦问题交由公民投票的州，但脱离联邦在整个南方都获得了广泛支持。

Confederates quickly shed their American identity and adopted a new Confederate nationalism. Confederate nationalism was based on several ideals, foremost among these being slavery. As Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens stated, the Confederacy’s “foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery . . . is his natural and normal condition.” The election of Lincoln in 1860 demonstrated that the South was politically overwhelmed. Slavery was omnipresent in the prewar South, and it served as the most common frame of reference for unequal power. To a southern man, there was no fate more terrifying than the thought of being reduced to the level of a slave. Religion likewise shaped Confederate nationalism, as southerners believed that the Confederacy was fulfilling God’s will. The Confederacy even veered from the American constitution by explicitly invoking Christianity in their founding document. Yet in every case, all rationale for secession could be thoroughly tied to slavery. “Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery—the greatest material interest of the world,” proclaimed the Mississippi statement of secession. Thus for the original seven Confederate states (and the four that would subsequently join), slavery’s existence was the essential core of the fledging Confederacy.

南方邦联很快抛弃了美国身份，采用了新的邦联民族主义。南方邦联民族主义基于多个理想，最重要的理想之一就是奴隶制。正如南方邦联副总统亚历山大·斯蒂芬斯所言，邦联的“基础已经奠定，其基石是建立在‘黑人不等同于白人’这一伟大真理之上；奴隶制……是他们的自然和正常状态。”1860年林肯的当选表明，南方在政治上已被压倒。奴隶制在战前的南方无处不在，并且它是最常见的不平等权力的框架。对于一个南方人来说，没有什么比被降低为奴隶的地位更可怕的了。宗教也在塑造南方邦联的民族主义上起了作用，因为南方人相信，南方邦联是在履行上帝的旨意。南方邦联甚至在其建国文献中明确提及基督教，背离了美国宪法。然而，在每种情况下，分裂的所有理由都可以直接与奴隶制挂钩。密西西比州的分裂声明中宣称：“我们的立场完全与奴隶制——世界上最大的物质利益——联系在一起。”因此，对于最初的七个南方邦联州（以及后来加入的四个州）来说，奴隶制的存在是新兴南方邦联的核心。

Not all southerners participated in Confederate nationalism. Unionist southerners, most common in the upcountry where slavery was weakest, retained their loyalty to the Union. These southerners joined the Union army, that is, the army of the United States of America, and worked to defeat the Confederacy. Black southerners, most of whom were enslaved, overwhelmingly supported the Union, often running away from plantations and forcing the Union army to reckon with slavery.

并非所有南方人都参与了南方邦联的民族主义。大多数南方的联邦主义者，尤其是在奴隶制较弱的内陆地区，依然忠于联邦。这些南方人加入了美国的联邦军队，努力击败南方邦联。大多数黑人南方人，尤其是被奴役的黑人，也大力支持联邦，经常逃离种植园，迫使联邦军队不得不面对奴隶制问题。

President James Buchanan would not directly address the issue of secession prior to his term’s end in early March. Any effort to try to solve the issue therefore fell upon Congress, specifically a Committee of Thirteen including prominent men such as Stephen Douglas, William Seward, Robert Toombs, and John Crittenden. In what became known as “Crittenden’s Compromise,” Senator Crittenden proposed a series of Constitutional amendments that guaranteed slavery in southern states and territories, denied the federal government interstate slave trade regulatory power, and offered to compensate enslavers whose enslaved people had escaped. The Committee of Thirteen ultimately voted down the measure, and it likewise failed in the full Senate vote (25–23). Reconciliation appeared impossible.

詹姆斯·布坎南总统在任期结束前（1861年3月初）未直接处理分裂问题。因此，解决这一问题的重任落到了国会，特别是由斯蒂芬·道格拉斯、威廉·斯图尔德、罗伯特·图姆斯和约翰·克里滕登等人组成的十三人委员会。所谓的“克里滕登妥协”中，克里滕登参议员提出了一系列宪法修正案，保证在南方的州和领土中继续存在奴隶制，否定联邦政府对跨州奴隶贸易的监管权力，并为逃亡奴隶的奴隶主提供补偿。十三人委员会最终否决了该提案，而在参议院全体投票中（25-23）也未通过。和解显然不再可能。

The seven seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama on February 4 to organize a new nation. The delegates selected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president and established a capital in Montgomery, Alabama (it would move to Richmond in May). Whether other states of the Upper South would join the Confederacy remained uncertain. By the early spring of 1861, North Carolina and Tennessee had not held secession conventions, while voters in Virginia, Missouri, and Arkansas initially voted down secession. Despite this temporary boost to the Union, it became abundantly clear that these acts of loyalty in the Upper South were highly conditional and relied on a clear lack of intervention on the part of the federal government. This was the precarious political situation facing Abraham Lincoln following his inauguration on March 4, 1861.

七个脱离联邦的州于1861年2月4日在阿拉巴马州蒙哥马利召开会议，组织了一个新的国家。代表们选举了密西西比州的杰斐逊·戴维斯为总统，并在蒙哥马利建立了临时首都（后来迁至里士满）。其他上南方的州是否会加入南方邦联仍然不确定。到1861年春天，北卡罗来纳州和田纳西州还未召开脱离联邦的会议，而弗吉尼亚州、密苏里州和阿肯色州的选民最初投票反对分裂。尽管上南方的这些忠诚行为暂时给联邦带来了希望，但显而易见，这些行为的背后是高度不稳定的，依赖于联邦政府的明确不干预。林肯总统于1861年3月4日就职时，面临的政治局势极为复杂。

III. A War for Union 1861-1863

三、为了联邦的战争（1861-1863）

In his inaugural address, Lincoln declared secession “legally void.” While he did not intend to invade southern states, he would use force to maintain possession of federal property within seceded states. Attention quickly shifted to the federal installation of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. The fort was in need of supplies, and Lincoln intended to resupply it. South Carolina called for U.S. soldiers to evacuate the fort. Commanding officer Major Robert Anderson refused. On April 12, 1861, Confederate Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard fired on the fort. Anderson surrendered on April 13 and the Union troops evacuated. In response to the attack, President Abraham Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve three months to suppress the rebellion. The American Civil War had begun.

在他的就职演讲中，林肯宣布分裂“在法律上无效”。虽然他并不打算侵略南方州，但他会使用武力维持联邦在脱离的州内的财产。很快，焦点转向了南卡罗来纳州查尔斯顿的联邦驻军——萨姆特堡。这个堡垒急需补给，林肯打算为其重新补给。南卡罗来纳州要求美军撤出该堡垒。指挥官罗伯特·安德森少校拒绝了这一要求。1861年4月12日，南方邦联的比奥·T·博雷戈将军对堡垒发起了炮击。安德森于4月13日投降，联邦军队撤离了堡垒。作为回应，林肯总统呼吁招募75,000名志愿兵，服役三个月以镇压叛乱。美国内战就此爆发。

The assault on Fort Sumter and subsequent call for troops provoked several Upper South states to join the Confederacy. In total, eleven states renounced their allegiance to the United States. The new Confederate nation was predicated on the institution of slavery and the promotion of any and all interests that reinforced that objective. Some southerners couched their defense of slavery as a preservation of states’ rights. But in order to protect slavery, the Confederate constitution left even less power to the states than the U.S. Constitution, an irony not lost on many.

对萨姆特堡的攻击和随后征召军队的举措促使若干上南方州加入了邦联。共计11个州宣布放弃效忠美国。新成立的邦联国家基于奴隶制这一制度，并致力于推动一切强化这一目标的利益。虽然一些南方人将他们对奴隶制的辩护包装为维护州权，但为了保护奴隶制，邦联宪法赋予各州的权力比美国宪法还要少，这一讽刺之处并未被许多人忽视。

Shortly after Lincoln’s call for troops, the Union adopted General-in-Chief Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan to suppress the rebellion. This strategy intended to strangle the Confederacy by cutting off access to coastal ports and inland waterways via a naval blockade. Ground troops would enter the interior. Like an anaconda snake, they planned to surround and squeeze the Confederacy.

在林肯征召军队后不久，联邦采纳了总司令温菲尔德·斯科特的“巨蛇计划”来镇压叛乱。这个战略旨在通过海上封锁切断邦联对海港和内陆水道的通行，从而“扼杀”邦联。陆军则进入内陆，像一条巨蛇一样，计划包围并压缩邦联。

The border states of Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky maintained geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South. All four were immediately critical to the outcome of the conflict. Maryland was particularly important given its position relative to Washington DC. Abraham Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus and allowed military commanders to arrest secession-friendly activists without charging them with a crime. Other border states were also important, and Lincoln famously quipped, “I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.” Lincoln and his military advisors realized that the loss of the border states could mean a significant decrease in Union resources and threaten the capital in Washington. Consequently, Lincoln hoped to foster loyalty among their citizens, so Union forces could minimize their occupation. In spite of terrible guerrilla warfare in Missouri and Kentucky, the four border states remained loyal to the Union throughout the war.

特拉华州、马里兰州、密苏里州和肯塔基州这些边界州维持着与北方和南方的地理、社会、政治和经济联系。所有四个州在战争的结果中都至关重要。特别是马里兰州，因为它位于华盛顿特区附近。林肯总统暂停了《人身保护令》，允许军事指挥官在没有正式指控的情况下逮捕亲分裂的活动家。其他边界州同样重要，林肯有一句名言：“我认为失去肯塔基州几乎就等于失去整个比赛。”林肯和他的军事顾问意识到，失去边界州可能意味着联邦资源的显著减少，并可能威胁到华盛顿的首都。因此，林肯希望促进这些州公民的忠诚，以便联邦军队尽量减少占领。尽管密苏里和肯塔基州爆发了可怕的游击战争，这四个边界州在整个战争中始终忠诚于联邦。

Foreign countries, primarily in Europe, also watched the unfolding war with deep interest. The United States represented the greatest example of democratic thought at the time, and individuals from as far afield as Britain, France, Spain, Russia, and beyond closely followed events across the Atlantic Ocean. If the democratic experiment within the United States failed, many democratic activists in Europe wondered what hope might exist for such experiments elsewhere. Conversely, those with close ties to the cotton industry watched with other concerns. War meant the possibility of disrupting the cotton supply, and disruption could have catastrophic ramifications in commercial and financial markets abroad.

外国，主要是欧洲国家，也密切关注着这场战争的进展。美国代表着当时民主思想的最大典范，来自英国、法国、西班牙、俄罗斯等地的人们都在密切关注跨越大西洋的事件。如果美国的民主实验失败了，许多欧洲的民主活动家开始质疑，在其他地方进行类似实验是否还有希望。相反，那些与棉花工业有紧密联系的人则有不同的关切。战争意味着棉花供应可能会受到干扰，而这一干扰可能会对海外商业和金融市场造成灾难性后果。

While Lincoln, his cabinet, and the War Department devised strategies to defeat the rebel insurrection, Black Americans quickly forced the issue of slavery as a primary issue in the debate. As early as 1861, Black Americans implored the Lincoln administration to serve in the army and navy. Lincoln initially waged a conservative, limited war. He believed that the presence of African American troops would threaten the loyalty of slaveholding border states, and white volunteers might refuse to serve alongside Black men. However, army commanders could not ignore the growing populations of formerly enslaved people who escaped to freedom behind Union army lines. These former enslaved people took a proactive stance early in the war and forced the federal government to act. As the number of refugees ballooned, Lincoln and Congress found it harder to avoid the issue.

在林肯、他的内阁和战争部制定战略以击败叛军时，黑人美国人迅速将奴隶制问题推向了辩论的中心。早在1861年，黑人美国人就恳求林肯政府允许他们参军和服役。林肯最初采取的是保守且有限的战争策略。他认为，黑人士兵的出现可能会威胁到奴隶持有的边界州的忠诚，而白人志愿兵也可能拒绝与黑人并肩作战。然而，军队指挥官无法忽视那些逃亡到联邦军队线后的人口不断增加的黑人群体。这些曾经被奴役的人在战争初期采取了主动立场，迫使联邦政府采取行动。随着难民数量的激增，林肯和国会发现自己越来越难以回避这个问题。

In May 1861, General Benjamin F. Butler went over his superiors’ heads and began accepting freedom-seeking escapees who came to Fort Monroe in Virginia. In order to avoid answering whether these people were free, Butler reasoned called them “contraband of war,” and he had as much a right to seize them as he did to seize enemy horses or cannons. Later that summer Congress affirmed Butler’s policy in the First Confiscation Act. The act left “contrabands,” as these runaways were called, in a state of limbo. Once an enslaved person escaped to Union lines, their enslaver’s claim was nullified. She was not, however, a free citizen of the United States. Runaways lived in “contraband camps,” where disease and malnutrition were rampant. Women and men were required to perform the drudge work of war: raising fortifications, cooking meals, and laying railroad tracks. Still, life as a contraband offered a potential path to freedom, and thousands of enslaved people seized the opportunity.

1861年5月，班杰明·F·巴特勒将军绕过上级，开始接收那些逃向弗吉尼亚州门罗堡寻求自由的逃奴。为了避免回答这些人是否已经获得自由，巴特勒将他们称为“战争走私品”，并认为他有同样的权力去没收他们，就像没收敌人的马匹或大炮一样。那年夏天，国会在《第一次没收法案》中确认了巴特勒的政策。该法案让这些被称为“走私品”的逃奴处于一种法律边缘状态。一旦一个被奴役的人逃到联邦军线，他们原主的所有权就被取消，但他们仍然不是美国的自由公民。逃亡者生活在“走私品营地”中，那里充斥着疾病和营养不良。男女都需要从事战争中的繁重工作：建造防御工事、做饭和铺设铁路轨道。尽管如此，作为走私品的生活仍提供了一条通向自由的潜在路径，成千上万的被奴役者抓住了这一机会。

Fugitives posed a dilemma for the Union military. Soldiers were forbidden to interfere with slavery or assist runaways, but many soldiers found such a policy unchristian. Even those indifferent to slavery were reluctant to turn away potential laborers or help the enemy by returning his property. Also, enslaved people could provide useful information on the local terrain and the movements of Confederate troops. Union officers became particularly reluctant to turn away freedom-seeking people when Confederate commanders began forcing enslaved laborers to work on fortifications. Every enslaved person who escaped to Union lines was a loss to the Confederate war effort.

逃亡者给联邦军队带来了困境。士兵们被禁止干涉奴隶制或协助逃亡者，但许多士兵认为这样的政策不合基督教教义。即使是那些对奴隶制漠不关心的人，也不愿意将潜在的劳动力拒之门外，或通过归还敌人的财产来帮助敌人。此外，奴隶们能提供有关当地地形和邦联军队动态的有用信息。当邦联指挥官开始强迫被奴役的劳工参与修建防御工事时，联邦军官们特别不愿意拒绝那些寻求自由的人。每一个逃向联邦军线的被奴役者，都是对邦联战争努力的一次损失。

Any hopes for a brief conflict were eradicated when Union and Confederate forces met at the Battle of Bull Run, near Manassas, Virginia. While not particularly deadly, the Confederate victory proved that the Civil War would be long and costly. Furthermore, in response to the embarrassing Union rout, Lincoln removed Brigadier General Irvin McDowell and promoted Major General George B. McClellan to commander of the newly formed Army of the Potomac. For nearly a year after the First Battle of Bull Run, the Eastern Theater remained relatively silent. Smaller engagements only resulted in a bloody stalemate.

联邦与邦联军队在弗吉尼亚州马纳萨斯附近的第一次布尔朗战役中相遇，彻底消除了快速结束冲突的希望。虽然这场战斗的死亡人数并不算特别高，但邦联的胜利证明了内战将会是漫长且代价巨大的。此外，为了应对联邦军的尴尬溃败，林肯撤换了欧文·麦克道威尔准将，将乔治·B·麦克莱兰少将提升为新组建的波托马克军司令。在第一次布尔朗战役之后的近一年时间里，东部战区保持了相对的沉寂。较小的冲突仅仅导致了血腥的僵局。

But while the military remained quiet, the same could not be said of Republicans in Washington. The absence of fractious, stalling southerners in Congress allowed Republicans to finally pass the Whig economic package, including the Homestead Act, the Land-Grant College Act (aka the Morrill Act), and the Pacific Railroad Act. The federal government also began moving toward a more nationally controlled currency system (the greenback) and the creation of banks with national characteristics. Such acts proved instrumental in the expansion of the federal government and industry.

然而，尽管军事局势保持沉寂，华盛顿的共和党人却并未保持沉默。南方分裂势力在国会中的缺席，使得共和党得以通过温和派的经济方案，包括《宅地法案》、 《土地拨款学院法案》（即莫里尔法案）和《太平洋铁路法案》。联邦政府还开始向更加集中控制的货币体系（绿钞）和具有全国性质的银行系统迈进。这些法案在联邦政府和工业的扩展中发挥了重要作用。

The Democratic Party, absent its southern leaders, divided into two camps. War Democrats largely stood behind President Lincoln. Peace Democrats—also known as Copperheads—clashed frequently with both War Democrats and Republicans. Copperheads were sympathetic to the Confederacy; they exploited public antiwar sentiment (often the result of a lost battle or mounting casualties) and tried to push President Lincoln to negotiate an immediate peace, regardless of political leverage or bargaining power. Had the Copperheads succeeded in bringing about immediate peace, the Union would have been forced to recognize the Confederacy as a separate and legitimate government and the institution of slavery would have remained intact.

民主党在失去了南方领导人后，分裂成了两派。战争民主党大体上支持林肯总统，而和平民主党——也称为铜头党——则与战争民主党和共和党发生频繁冲突。铜头党支持邦联，他们利用公众的反战情绪（通常是战斗失利或伤亡增加所导致的），试图迫使林肯总统立即谈判和平，而不考虑政治筹码或谈判力量。如果铜头党成功推动立即和平，联邦将不得不承认邦联是一个独立合法的政府，奴隶制度也将得以维持。

While Washington buzzed with political activity, military life consisted of relative monotony punctuated by brief periods of horror. Daily life for a Civil War soldier was one of routine. A typical day began around six in the morning and involved drill, marching, lunch break, and more drilling followed by policing the camp. Weapon inspection and cleaning followed, perhaps one final drill, dinner, and taps around nine or nine thirty in the evening. Soldiers in both armies grew weary of the routine. Picketing or foraging afforded welcome distractions to the monotony.

尽管华盛顿充满了政治活动，军事生活则多是单调乏味的，偶尔会有可怕的短暂时刻打破这一平静。内战士兵的日常生活充满了例行公事。一天的开始通常是早上六点，接下来是训练、行军、午休、更多的训练，再是巡逻营地。接着进行武器检查和清洁，也许再做一轮训练，晚餐后便是晚上九点或九点半的熄灯号。双方军队的士兵都逐渐对这种日常生活感到厌倦。巡逻或觅食为单调的生活提供了暂时的分散注意力的机会。

Soldiers devised clever ways of dealing with the boredom of camp life. The most common was writing. These were highly literate armies; nine out of every ten Federals and eight out of every ten Confederates could read and write. Letters home served as a tether linking soldiers to their loved ones. Soldiers also read; newspapers were in high demand. News of battles, events in Europe, politics in Washington and Richmond, and local concerns were voraciously sought and traded.

士兵们想出了聪明的方法来应对营地生活的无聊。最常见的方式是写信。这些部队的文盲率很低；几乎每十个北方联邦士兵中就有九个会读写，而南方邦联士兵中也有八个能读能写。给家里写信成了士兵们与亲人保持联系的纽带。士兵们还阅读报纸；报纸在他们中间非常受欢迎。有关战斗、欧洲的新闻、华盛顿和里士满的政治动态以及当地的新闻是士兵们最为关心和交易的内容。

While there were nurses, camp followers, and some women who disguised themselves as men, camp life was overwhelmingly male. Soldiers drank liquor, smoked tobacco, gambled, and swore. Social commentators feared that when these men returned home, with their hard-drinking and irreligious ways, all decency, faith, and temperance would depart. But not all methods of distraction were detrimental. Soldiers also organized debate societies, composed music, sang songs, wrestled, raced horses, boxed, and played sports.

尽管有护士、随军家属以及一些伪装成男性的女性，营地生活大多由男性组成。士兵们喝酒、吸烟、赌博和咒骂。社会评论家担心，当这些士兵回到家乡时，他们那种豪饮、不信教的生活方式会让所有的体面、信仰和禁欲主义都消失。但并非所有的分心方法都是有害的。士兵们还组织辩论社，作曲、唱歌、摔跤、赛马、拳击和打球。

Neither side could consistently provide supplies for their soldiers, so it was not uncommon, though officially forbidden, for common soldiers to trade with the enemy. Confederate soldiers prized northern newspapers and coffee. Northerners were glad to exchange these for southern tobacco. Supply shortages and poor sanitation were synonymous with Civil War armies. The close proximity of thousands of men bred disease. Lice were soldiers’ daily companions.

由于两方都无法持续为士兵提供补给，因此普通士兵与敌人进行交易并不罕见，尽管这在官方上是被禁止的。邦联士兵珍视北方的报纸和咖啡，而北方士兵则乐于用这些换取南方的烟草。供应短缺和恶劣的卫生条件是内战军队的代名词。成千上万的士兵聚集在一起，疾病传播迅速，虱子是士兵们的日常伙伴。

Music was popular among the soldiers of both armies, creating a diversion from the boredom and horror of the war. As a result, soldiers often sang on fatigue duty and while in camp. Favorite songs often reminded the soldiers of home, including “Lorena,” “Home, Sweet Home,” and “Just Before the Battle, Mother.” Dances held in camp offered another way to enjoy music. Since there were often few women nearby, soldiers would dance with one another.

音乐在双方士兵中都很受欢迎，成为了战斗与无聊生活中的一种消遣。因此，士兵们常常在疲劳任务和驻扎营地时唱歌。最受欢迎的歌曲通常让士兵们想起家乡，如《洛雷娜》、《家，甜蜜的家》和《战斗前，妈妈》。在营地举行的舞会则是另一种享受音乐的方式。由于附近的女性很少，士兵们通常会与其他士兵跳舞。

When the Civil War broke out, one of the most popular songs among soldiers and civilians was “John Brown’s Body,” which began “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the grave.” Started as a Union anthem praising John Brown’s actions at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, then used by Confederates to vilify Brown, both sides’ version of the song stressed that they were on the right side. Eventually the words to Julia Ward Howe’s poem “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” were set to the melody, further implying Union success. The themes of popular songs changed over the course of the war, as feelings of inevitable success alternated with feelings of terror and despair.

当内战爆发时，《约翰·布朗的遗体》是士兵和民众中最受欢迎的歌曲之一，歌词开头是“约翰·布朗的遗体在坟墓里腐烂。”这首歌最初是作为一首赞美约翰·布朗在哈珀斯费里行动的联邦赞歌，后来被邦联用来诋毁布朗，双方对这首歌的演绎都强调自己站在正确的一方。最终，朱莉娅·沃德·豪的诗《共和国战歌》的歌词被设置为这首歌的旋律，进一步暗示联邦的胜利。随着战争的进行，流行歌曲的主题也发生了变化，战胜的必然性与恐惧和绝望的情绪交替出现。

After an extensive delay on the part of Union commander George McClellan, his 120,000-man Army of the Potomac moved via ship to the peninsula between the York and James Rivers in Virginia. Rather than crossing overland via the former battlefield at Manassas Junction, McClellan attempted to swing around the rebel forces and enter the capital of Richmond before they knew what hit them. McClellan, however, was an overly cautious man who consistently overestimated his adversaries’ numbers. This cautious approach played into the Confederates’ favor on the outskirts of Richmond. Confederate General Robert E. Lee, recently appointed commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, forced McClellan to retreat from Richmond, and his Peninsular Campaign became a tremendous failure.

在联邦指挥官乔治·麦克莱伦的长期拖延后，他的12万人组成的波托马克军通过船只移动到弗吉尼亚州约克河和詹姆斯河之间的半岛。麦克莱伦并未通过曼纳萨斯交汇点的旧战场，而是试图绕过叛军并迅速进入里士满的首都。然而，麦克莱伦是一个过于谨慎的人，总是高估敌军的数量。这种谨慎的方式最终使邦联占据了里士满郊区的有利位置。邦联将军罗伯特·E·李（刚被任命为北弗吉尼亚军的指挥官）迫使麦克莱伦撤退，麦克莱伦的半岛战役因此成为一次惨败。

Union forces met with little success in the East, but the Western Theater provided hope for the United States. In February 1862, men under Union general Ulysses S. Grant captured Forts Henry and Donelson along the Tennessee River. Fighting in the West greatly differed from that in the East. At the First Battle of Bull Run, for example, two large armies fought for control of the nations’ capitals, while in the West, Union and Confederate forces fought for control of the rivers, since the Mississippi River and its tributaries were key components of the Union’s Anaconda Plan. One of the deadliest of these clashes occurred along the Tennessee River at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6–7, 1862. This battle, lasting only two days, was the costliest single battle in American history up to that time. The Union victory shocked both the Union and the Confederacy with approximately twenty-three thousand casualties, a number that exceeded casualties from all of the United States’ previous wars combined. The subsequent capture of New Orleans by Union forces proved a heavy blow to the Confederacy and capped an 1862 spring of success in the Western Theater.

联邦在东部战场的进展不大，但西部战场却为美国提供了希望。1862年2月，联邦将领尤利西斯·S·格兰特指挥的部队沿田纳西河占领了亨利堡和多纳尔森堡。西部的战斗与东部大不相同。例如，在第一次布尔朗战役中，双方的两支大军争夺国家首都的控制权，而在西部，联邦和邦联军队则争夺对河流的控制，因为密西西比河及其支流是联邦“蛇形战略”中的关键组成部分。这些冲突中最致命的之一发生在1862年4月6日至7日的田纳西河上的希洛战役。这场仅持续两天的战斗，成为美国历史上到目前为止最为惨烈的单一战斗，造成约两万三千人伤亡，超过了美国历史上所有先前战争的伤亡总和。随后的新奥尔良被联邦军队占领，给邦联带来了沉重打击，并为西部战场的春季胜利画上了句号。

The Union and Confederate navies helped or hindered army movements around the many marine environments of the southern United States. Each navy employed the latest technology to outmatch the other. The Confederate navy, led by Stephen Russell Mallory, had the unenviable task of constructing a fleet from scratch and trying to fend off a vastly better equipped Union navy. Led by Gideon Welles of Connecticut, the Union navy successfully implemented General-in-Chief Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan. The future of naval warfare also emerged in the spring of 1862 as two “ironclad” warships fought a duel at Hampton Roads, Virginia. The age of the wooden sail was gone and naval warfare would be fundamentally altered. While advances in naval technology ruled the seas, African Americans on the ground were complicating Union war aims to an even greater degree.

联邦和邦联的海军在许多南方水域的军事行动中互相支援或妨碍。每个海军都采用最新的技术来击败对方。由斯蒂芬·拉塞尔·马洛里领导的邦联海军，承担着从零开始建造舰队并试图抵挡装备更为精良的联邦海军的艰巨任务。由康涅狄格州的吉迪恩·韦尔斯领导的联邦海军成功地执行了总司令温菲尔德·斯科特的蛇形战略。1862年春，海军战争的未来也在弗吉尼亚州汉普顿路上两艘铁甲战舰的决斗中浮出水面。木船的时代结束了，海战方式将发生根本性变化。随着海军技术的进步，地面上非洲裔美国人却在更大程度上复杂化了联邦的战争目标。

By the summer of 1862, the actions of Black Americans were pushing the Union toward a full-blown war of emancipation. Following the First Confiscation Act, in April 1862, Congress abolished the institution of slavery in the District of Columbia. In July 1862, Congress passed the Second Confiscation Act, effectively emancipating enslaved people in land that came under Union control. Word traveled fast among enslaved people, and this legislation led to even more runaways making their way into Union lines. Abraham Lincoln’s thinking began to evolve. By the summer of 1862, Lincoln first floated the idea of an Emancipation Proclamation to members of his cabinet. By August 1862, he proposed the first iteration of the Emancipation Proclamation. While his cabinet supported such an idea, secretary of state William Seward insisted that Lincoln wait for a “decisive” Union victory so the proclamation would not appear too desperate a measure on the part of a failing government.

到1862年夏天，非洲裔美国人的行动迫使联邦走向一场彻底的解放战争。继第一次没收法案之后，1862年4月，国会在哥伦比亚特区废除了奴隶制。1862年7月，国会通过了第二次没收法案，实际上解放了联邦控制下土地上的被奴役人民。消息迅速在奴隶之间传开，这项立法导致了更多的逃亡者涌入联邦军队。林肯的思想开始发生变化。到1862年夏天，林肯首次向内阁成员提出了解放宣言的构想。到1862年8月，他提出了解放宣言的初步版本。尽管内阁支持这一想法，但国务卿威廉·修瓦德坚持认为林肯应该等待一次“决定性”的联邦胜利，这样宣布解放宣言才不会显得像一个失败政府的绝望之举。

This decisive moment that prompted the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation occurred in the fall of 1862 along Antietam Creek in Maryland. Emboldened by their success in the previous spring and summer, Lee and Confederate president Jefferson Davis planned to win a decisive victory in Union territory and end the war. On September 17, 1862, McClellan’s and Lee’s forces collided at the Battle of Antietam near the town of Sharpsburg. This battle was the first major battle of the Civil War to occur on Union soil. It remains the bloodiest single day in American history: over twenty thousand soldiers were killed, wounded, or missing.

促使林肯发布解放宣言的决定性时刻出现在1862年秋天的安提坦溪战役上。受到前一年春夏的成功鼓舞，李将军和邦联总统杰斐逊·戴维斯计划在联邦领土内获得一场决定性胜利，以结束战争。1862年9月17日，麦克莱伦和李的军队在马里兰州沙普斯堡附近的安提坦战役中相遇。这是内战中第一次发生在联邦领土上的大型战斗，至今仍是美国历史上最血腥的一天：超过两万名士兵阵亡、受伤或失踪。

Despite the Confederate withdrawal and the high death toll, the Battle of Antietam was not a decisive Union victory. It did, however, result in enough of a victory for Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed enslaved people in areas under Confederate control. There were significant exemptions to the Emancipation Proclamation, including the border states and parts of other states in the Confederacy. A far cry from a universal end to slavery, the Emancipation Proclamation nevertheless proved vital, shifting the war’s aims from simple union to emancipation. Framing it as a war measure, Lincoln and his cabinet hoped that stripping the Confederacy of its labor force would not only debilitate the southern economy but also weaken Confederate morale. Furthermore, the Battle of Antietam and the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation all but ensured that the Confederacy would not be recognized by European powers. Nevertheless, Confederates continued fighting. Union and Confederate forces clashed again at Fredericksburg, Virginia, in December 1862. This Confederate victory resulted in staggering Union casualties.

尽管邦联军队撤退，伤亡惨重，但安提坦战役并不是一次决定性的联邦胜利。然而，这一结果足以让林肯宣布解放宣言，解放了邦联控制下地区的奴隶。解放宣言也有不少例外，包括边界州和一些其他邦联州的部分地区。虽然这远不是普遍废除奴隶制，解放宣言却具有至关重要的意义，改变了战争的目标，从单纯的保持联邦转向了解放奴隶。将其作为战争手段，林肯和他的内阁希望通过剥夺邦联的劳动力，不仅削弱南方的经济，还能打击邦联的士气。此外，安提坦战役和解放宣言的发布几乎确保了欧洲列强不会承认邦联。然而，邦联继续作战。1862年12月，联邦和邦联军队再次在弗雷德里克斯堡（弗吉尼亚州）发生冲突。这场邦联的胜利导致了联邦军队惨重的伤亡。

IV. War for Emancipation 1863-1865

四、争取解放之战（1863-1865）

As Union armies penetrated deeper into the Confederacy, politicians and generals came to understand the necessity and benefit of enlisting Black men in the army and navy. Although a few commanders began forming Black units in 1862, such as Massachusetts abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson’s First South Carolina Volunteers (the first regiment of Black soldiers), widespread enlistment did not occur until the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect on January 1, 1863. “And I further declare and make known,” Lincoln’s proclamation read, “that such persons of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service.”

随着联邦军队深入南方邦联的腹地，政治家和将军们逐渐认识到招募黑人加入军队和海军的必要性和好处。虽然一些指挥官在1862年就开始组织黑人部队，例如马萨诸塞州的废奴主义者托马斯·温特沃斯·希金森（Thomas Wentworth Higginson）所带领的第一南卡罗来纳志愿军（这是首个黑人士兵团），但直到《解放宣言》于1863年1月1日生效后，广泛的征兵才开始进行。林肯的宣言中写道：“我进一步宣布并声明，适合条件的黑人将被接受进入美国武装部队，担任驻守堡垒、阵地、站点及其他地方的职责，并为各种类型的舰船提供人员。”

The language describing Black enlistment indicated Lincoln’s implicit desire to segregate African American troops from the main campaigning armies of white soldiers. “I believe it is a resource which, if vigorously applied now, will soon close the contest. It works doubly, weakening the enemy and strengthening us,” Lincoln remarked in August 1863 about Black soldiering. Although more than 180,000 Black men (10 percent of the Union army) served during the war, the majority of United States Colored Troops (USCT) remained stationed behind the lines as garrison forces, often laboring and performing noncombat roles.

关于黑人征兵的语言表明，林肯有意将黑人士兵与白人士兵分开，“我相信，如果现在积极地运用这一资源，很快就能结束这场争斗。它有双重作用，一方面削弱敌人，另一方面加强我们自身。”林肯在1863年8月如此评价黑人士兵。尽管超过180,000名黑人（占联邦军队的10%）在战争期间服役，但大多数美国有色部队（USCT）仍然驻守在战线后方，担任驻守任务，通常从事劳动和非战斗角色。

Black soldiers in the Union army endured rampant discrimination and earned less pay than white soldiers, while also facing the possibility of being murdered or sold into slavery if captured. James Henry Gooding, a Black corporal in the famed 54th Massachusetts Volunteers, wrote to Abraham Lincoln in September 1863, questioning why he and his fellow volunteers were paid less than white men. Gooding argued that because he and his brethren were born in the United States and selflessly left their private lives to enter the army, they should be treated “as American SOLDIERS, not as menial hirelings.”

黑人士兵在联邦军中遭受普遍的歧视，薪水比白人士兵低，而且如果被俘，可能会被杀害或卖为奴隶。来自著名的第54马萨诸塞志愿军的黑人军士詹姆斯·亨利·古丁（James Henry Gooding）于1863年9月致信林肯，质疑为什么他和其他志愿者的薪水比白人士兵低。古丁指出，因为他和他的战友出生在美国，且毫无保留地离开了自己的私生活加入军队，他们应该被视为“美国士兵，而不是卑微的雇佣工人。”

African American soldiers defied the inequality of military service and used their positions in the army to reshape society, North and South. The majority of the USCT had once been enslaved, and their presence as armed, blue-clad soldiers sent shock waves throughout the Confederacy. To their friends and families, African American soldiers symbolized the embodiment of liberation and the destruction of slavery. To white southerners, they represented the utter disruption of the Old South’s racial and social hierarchy. As members of armies of occupation, Black soldiers wielded martial authority in towns and plantations. At the end of the war, as a Black soldier marched by a cluster of Confederate prisoners, he noticed his former enslaver among the group. “Hello, massa,” the soldier exclaimed, “bottom rail on top dis time!”

黑人士兵挑战了军中不平等的待遇，并通过军中的地位重新塑造了北方和南方的社会。大多数美国有色部队曾经是奴隶，他们作为武装、穿蓝色军服的士兵的出现，在邦联中引起了震动。对他们的家人和朋友来说，黑人士兵象征着解放的体现和奴隶制度的摧毁。而对南方白人来说，他们则代表着旧南方种族和社会秩序的彻底颠覆。作为占领军的一员，黑人士兵在城镇和种植园中行使军事权力。战争结束时，一名黑人士兵走过一群邦联俘虏时，注意到其中有自己的前奴隶主。“嘿，老板，”士兵喊道，“这次底部的横木在上面了！”

The majority of the USCT occupied the South by performing garrison duty; other Black soldiers performed admirably on the battlefield, shattering white myths that docile, cowardly Black men would fold in the maelstrom of war. Black troops fought in more than four hundred battles and skirmishes, including Milliken’s Bend and Port Hudson, Louisiana; Fort Wagner, South Carolina; Nashville; and the final campaigns to capture Richmond, Virginia. Fifteen Black soldiers received the Medal of Honor, the highest honor bestowed for military heroism. Through their voluntarism, service, battlefield contributions, and even death, Black soldiers laid their claims for citizenship. “Once let the Black man get upon his person the brass letter U.S.” Frederick Douglass, the great Black abolitionist, proclaimed, “and there is no power on earth which can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship.”

美国有色部队中的大多数士兵驻扎在南方，从事驻守任务；其他一些黑人士兵则在战场上表现出色，打破了关于黑人男子“懦弱、温顺”的白人偏见。他们参与了400多场战斗和小规模冲突，包括路易斯安那州的米利肯弯道和港口哈德森、南卡罗来纳州的瓦格纳堡、纳什维尔以及最后的攻占弗吉尼亚州里士满的战役。15名黑人士兵获得了荣誉勋章，这是授予军事英勇行为的最高奖项。通过他们的志愿服务、战场贡献，甚至死亡，黑人士兵为获得公民身份奠定了基础。著名黑人废奴主义者弗雷德里克·道格拉斯宣称：“一旦黑人身上挂上了‘美国’（U.S.）字母的铜牌，地球上没有任何力量能够否认他已获得公民权。”

Many enslaved laborers accompanied their enslavers in the Confederate army. They served their enslavers as “camp servants,” cooking their meals, raising their tents, and carrying their supplies. The Confederacy also impressed enslaved laborers to perform manual labor. There are three important points to make about these enslaved “Confederates.” First, their labor was almost always coerced. Second, people are complicated and have varying, often contradictory loyalties. An enslaved person could hope in general that the Confederacy would lose but at the same time be concerned for the safety of his enslaver and the Confederate soldiers he saw on a daily basis. Finally, white Confederates did not see African Americans as their equals, much less as soldiers. There was never any doubt that Black laborers and camp servants were property. Though historians disagree on the matter, it is a stretch to claim that not a single African American ever fired a gun for the Confederacy; a camp servant whose enslaver died in battle might well pick up his dead enslaver’s gun and continue firing, if for no other reason than to protect himself. But this was always on an informal basis. The Confederate government did, in an act of desperation, pass a law in March 1865 allowing for the enlistment of Black soldiers, but only a few dozen African Americans (mostly Richmond hospital workers) had enlisted by the war’s end.

许多被奴役的劳工跟随他们的奴隶主加入了邦联军队。他们作为“营地仆人”为奴隶主提供服务，烹饪饭菜、搭建帐篷和搬运物资。邦联也强迫被奴役的劳工从事体力劳动。有三个关键点需要注意：首先，他们的劳动几乎总是被强迫的；其次，人们复杂且常常具有矛盾的忠诚。一位奴隶可能希望南方邦联失败，但又担心自己奴隶主和每天见到的邦联士兵的安全；最后，白人南方人从未将黑人视为平等，更别提将其视为士兵了。毫无疑问，黑人劳工和营地仆人被视为财产。尽管历史学家对此有争议，但说没有任何黑人为邦联开枪是错误的；一名营地仆人在奴隶主战死后可能会拿起奴隶主的枪继续开火，至少是为了自保。然而，这种行为始终是非正式的。尽管如此，邦联政府在1865年3月通过了一项绝望的法律，允许黑人士兵入伍，但到战争结束时，只有少数几个黑人（主要是里士满的医院工作人员）应征入伍。

As 1863 dawned, Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia continued its offensive strategy in the East. One of the war’s major battles occurred near the village of Chancellorsville, Virginia, between April 30 and May 6, 1863. While the Battle of Chancellorsville was an outstanding Confederate victory, it also resulted in heavy casualties and the mortal wounding of Confederate major general “Stonewall” Jackson, who was killed by friendly fire.

1863年初，李的北弗吉尼亚军继续在东部实施进攻战略。战争中一场重大战斗发生在1863年4月30日至5月6日之间，地点是弗吉尼亚州的“查特兰斯维尔”。虽然查特兰斯维尔战役是一次杰出的邦联胜利，但也导致了重大伤亡，并且邦联的主要将领“石墙”杰克逊在友军误伤中丧生。

In spite of Jackson’s death, Lee continued his offensive against federal forces and invaded Pennsylvania in the summer of 1863. During the three-day battle (July 1–3) at Gettysburg, heavy casualties crippled both sides. Yet the devastating July 3 infantry assault on the Union center, also known as Pickett’s Charge, caused Lee to retreat from Pennsylvania. The Gettysburg Campaign was Lee’s final northern incursion and the Battle of Gettysburg remains the bloodiest battle of the war, and in American history, with fifty-one thousand casualties.

尽管杰克逊去世，李依然继续对联邦军队发起进攻，并于1863年夏天入侵宾夕法尼亚。在7月1日至3日的葛底斯堡战役中，双方都付出了沉重的代价。然而，7月3日的步兵进攻——即“皮克特冲锋”——导致李军从宾夕法尼亚撤退。葛底斯堡战役是李最后一次向北的进攻，也是战争中最血腥的一场战斗，造成了51,000人伤亡，至今仍是美国历史上最为惨烈的战斗。

Concurrently in the West, Union forces continued their movement along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Grant launched his campaign against Vicksburg, Mississippi, in the winter of 1862. Known as the “Gibraltar of the West,” Vicksburg was the last holdout in the West, and its seizure would enable uninhibited travel for Union forces along the Mississippi River. Grant’s Vicksburg Campaign, which lasted until July 4, 1863, ended with the city’s surrender. The fall of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two.

同时，在西部，联邦军继续沿着密西西比河及其支流推进。格兰特将军自1862年冬季便发起了对密西西比州维克斯堡的战役。维克斯堡被称为“西部的直布罗陀”，它的占领将使联邦军队能够不受阻碍地在密西西比河上行动。格兰特的维克斯堡战役持续至1863年7月4日，最终以城市的投降告终。维克斯堡的陷落将南方邦联一分为二。

Despite Union success in the summer of 1863, discontent over the war simmered across the North. This was particularly true in the wake of the Enrollment Act—the first effort at a draft among the northern populace during the Civil War. Working-class northerners were especially angry that the wealthy could pay $300 for substitutes, sparing themselves from the carnage of war. “A rich man’s war, but a poor man’s fight,” was a popular refrain. The Emancipation Proclamation convinced many immigrants in northern cities that freed people would soon take their jobs. These economic and racial anxieties culminated in the New York City Draft Riots in July 1863. Over the span of four days, white rioters killed some 120 citizens, including the lynching of at least eleven Black New Yorkers. Property damage was in the millions, including the complete destruction of more than fifty properties—most notably that of the Colored Orphan Asylum. It was the largest civil disturbance to date in the United States (aside from the war itself) and was only stopped by the deployment of Union soldiers, some of whom came directly from the battlefield at Gettysburg.

尽管联邦在1863年夏季取得了一些成功，但战争中的不满情绪在北方蔓延。尤其是在《征兵法》实施后，北方人民的不满情绪高涨，这是美国内战期间第一次对北方民众进行征兵。北方工人阶级尤其愤怒，因为富人可以支付300美元雇佣替代者，从而避免了战争的血腥。“富人的战争，穷人的战斗”成为流行的口号。《解放宣言》使得许多北方城市的移民感到，解放的黑人很快会取代他们的工作。这些经济和种族上的焦虑最终在1863年7月导致了纽约市的征兵骚乱。四天的暴动中，白人骚乱分子杀害了大约120名市民，其中至少包括11名黑人纽约人。财产损失达数百万美元，其中包括彩色孤儿院的毁灭。那是美国迄今为止最大的民事骚乱（除战争本身外），直到联邦军队的部署才平息骚乱，其中一些士兵直接从葛底斯堡战场上赶来。

Elsewhere, the North produced widespread displays of unity. Sanitary fairs originated in the Old Northwest and raised millions of dollars for Union soldiers. Indeed, many women rose to take pivotal leadership roles in the sanitary fairs—a clear contribution to the northern war effort. The fairs also encouraged national unity within the North—something that became more important as the war dragged on and casualties continued to mount. The northern homefront was complicated: overt displays of loyalty contrasted with violent dissent.

然而，北方的其他地区则广泛展现了团结。卫生博览会在旧西北地区兴起，为联邦军士兵筹集了数百万美元。事实上，许多女性在卫生博览会中扮演了关键领导角色，这为北方的战争努力做出了明显贡献。卫生博览会也促进了北方国内的团结——这一点在战争持续拖延和伤亡不断增加的情况下显得尤为重要。北方的国内战线复杂，表面上的忠诚与暴力的异议并存。

A similar situation played out in the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress passed its first conscription act in the spring of 1862, a full year before its northern counterpart. Military service was required from all able-bodied males between ages eighteen and thirty-five (eventually extended to forty-five). Notable class exemptions likewise existed in the Confederacy: those who owned twenty or more enslaved laborers could escape the draft. Popular discontent reached a boiling point in 1863. Through the spring of 1863 consistent food shortages led to “bread riots” in several Confederate cities, most notably Richmond, Virginia, and the Georgia cities of Augusta, Macon, and Columbus. Confederate women led these mobs to protest food shortages and rampant inflation within the Confederate South. Exerting their own political control, women dramatically impacted the war through violent actions in these cases, as well as constant petitions to governors for aid and the release of husbands from military service. One of these women wrote a letter to North Carolina governor Zebulon Vance, saying, “Especially for the sake of suffering women and children, do try and stop this cruel war.” Confederates waged a multifront struggle against Union incursion and internal dissent.

南方的情况也类似。邦联国会在1862年春季通过了第一次征兵法，这比北方的类似法律早整整一年。所有18至35岁（后来扩展到45岁）适龄男子必须服兵役。邦联同样存在显著的阶级豁免：那些拥有二十名或更多被奴役劳工的人可以免于征兵。1863年，民众的不满情绪达到顶点。春季，持续的粮食短缺导致了“面包暴动”，特别是在弗吉尼亚州的里士满和乔治亚州的奥古斯塔、梅肯以及哥伦布等城市。这些暴动多由邦联女性主导，抗议粮食短缺和泛滥的通货膨胀。女性通过这些行动不仅表现出对政治的控制，还通过暴力行动和不断向州长请愿，要求提供援助和释放被征召入伍的丈夫，对战争产生了深远的影响。其中一位女性写信给北卡罗来纳州州长泽布隆·范斯，称：“特别是为了饱受苦难的妇女和儿童，请努力结束这场残酷的战争。”

For some women, the best way to support their cause was spying on the enemy. When the war broke out, Rose O’Neal Greenhow was living in Washington, D.C., where she traveled in high social circles, gathering information for her Confederate contact. Suspecting Greenhow of espionage, Allan Pinkerton placed her under surveillance, instigated a raid on her house to gather evidence, and then placed her under house arrest, after which she was incarcerated in Old Capitol Prison. Upon her release, she was sent, under guard, to Baltimore, Maryland. From there Greenhow went to Europe to attempt to bring support to the Confederacy. Failing in her efforts, Greenhow decided to return to America, boarding the blockade runner Condor, which ran aground near Wilmington, North Carolina. Subsequently, she drowned after her lifeboat capsized in a storm. Greenhow gave her life for the Confederate cause, while Elizabeth “Crazy Bet” Van Lew sacrificed her social standing for the Union. Van Lew was from a prominent Richmond, Virginia, family and spied on the Confederacy, leading to her being “held in contempt & scorn by the narrow minded men and women of my city for my loyalty.” Indeed, when General Ulysses Grant took control of Richmond, he placed a special guard on Van Lew. In addition to her espionage activities, Van Lew also acted as a nurse to Union prisoners in Libby Prison. For pro-Confederate southern women, there were more opportunities to show their scorn for the enemy. Some women in New Orleans took these demonstrations to the level of dumping their chamber pots onto the heads of unsuspecting federal soldiers who stood underneath their balconies, leading to Benjamin Butler’s infamous General Order Number 28, which arrested all rebellious women as prostitutes.

对于一些女性来说，支持自己一方的最佳方式就是对敌人进行间谍活动。当战争爆发时，罗斯·奥尼尔·格林豪（Rose O’Neal Greenhow）住在华盛顿D.C.，并活跃于上层社交圈，收集情报传递给她的邦联联系人。由于怀疑格林豪从事间谍活动，阿伦·平克顿（Allan Pinkerton）对她进行了监视，并对她的住所进行了突袭，收集证据后将她软禁在家中，随后她被关进旧国会监狱。她获释后被押送到马里兰州巴尔的摩，后来前往欧洲争取支持邦联。尽管她的努力未果，格林豪决定返回美国，登上了封锁跑船 Condor，但该船在北卡罗来纳州威尔明顿附近搁浅。随后，她在一次风暴中溺水身亡。格林豪为邦联事业献出了生命，而伊丽莎白·“疯狂贝特”·范·刘（Elizabeth “Crazy Bet” Van Lew）则为联邦事业牺牲了自己的社会地位。范·刘出身于弗吉尼亚州里士满的一个显赫家庭，并为联邦进行间谍活动，因此被“我的城市中狭隘的男女们视为耻辱和鄙视。”事实上，当尤利西斯·格兰特将军接管里士满时，他为范·刘派遣了特别的守卫。除了间谍活动外，范·刘还曾在李比监狱为联邦战俘提供护理。对于亲邦联的南方女性来说，表现出对敌人的蔑视有更多的机会。在新奥尔良，一些女性采取了极端的示威方式，把便池里的污物倒在毫不知情的联邦士兵头上，这些士兵正站在她们阳台下方，这导致了本杰明·巴特勒将军臭名昭著的第28号命令，要求将所有反叛女性逮捕并视作妓女。

Military strategy shifted in 1864. The new tactics of “hard war” evolved slowly, as restraint toward southern civilians and property ultimately gave way to a concerted effort to demoralize southern civilians and destroy the southern economy. Grant’s successes at Vicksburg and Chattanooga, Tennessee (November 1863), and Meade’s cautious pursuit of Lee after Gettysburg prompted Lincoln to promote Grant to general-in-chief of the Union army in early 1864. This change in command resulted in some of the bloodiest battles of the Eastern Theater. Grant’s Overland Campaign, including the Battle of the Wilderness, the Battle of Cold Harbor, and the siege of Petersburg, demonstrated Grant’s willingness to tirelessly attack the ever-dwindling Army of Northern Virginia. By June 1864, Grant’s army surrounded the Confederate city of Petersburg, Virginia. Siege operations cut off Confederate forces and supplies from the capital of Richmond. Meanwhile out west, Union armies under the command of William Tecumseh Sherman implemented hard war strategies and slowly made their way through central Tennessee and northern Georgia, capturing the vital rail hub of Atlanta in September 1864.

战争的军事战略在1864年发生了变化。“硬战”战术逐渐成型，最初对南方平民和财产的克制最终让位于有组织的、旨在打击南方平民士气并摧毁南方经济的努力。格兰特在维克斯堡和田纳西州查塔努加的成功（1863年11月），以及米德将军在葛底斯堡战役后对李的谨慎追击，使得林肯在1864年初将格兰特晋升为联邦军总司令。这一指挥变动导致了东部战场上最血腥的一些战役。格兰特的“越野战役”，包括“荒野战役”、冷港战役和彼得堡围城战，展现了格兰特不知疲倦地攻击日益衰弱的北弗吉尼亚军的决心。到1864年6月，格兰特的军队围困了位于弗吉尼亚州的邦联城市彼得堡。围城作战切断了邦联军队与里士满的供应线。与此同时，西部的联邦军队在威廉·特库姆塞·谢尔曼将军的指挥下实施了“硬战”策略，逐渐向田纳西州中部和乔治亚州北部推进，并于1864年9月占领了至关重要的铁路枢纽亚特兰大。

Action in both theaters during 1864 caused even more casualties and furthered the devastation of disease. Disease haunted both armies, and accounted for over half of all Civil War casualties. Sometimes as many as half of the men in a company could be sick. The overwhelming majority of Civil War soldiers came from rural areas, where less exposure to diseases meant soldiers lacked immunities. Vaccines for diseases such as smallpox were largely unavailable to those outside cities or towns. Despite the common nineteenth-century tendency to see city men as weak or soft, soldiers from urban environments tended to succumb to fewer diseases than their rural counterparts. Tuberculosis, measles, rheumatism, typhoid, malaria, and smallpox spread almost unchecked among the armies.

1864年两大战场上的行动导致了更多的伤亡，并加剧了由于疾病造成的破坏。疾病困扰着双方军队，且占据了美国内战中超过一半的伤亡人数。有时，一支连队中有一半的士兵可能生病。大多数内战士兵来自农村地区，在这些地区，士兵们缺乏对疾病的免疫力。由于疫苗（如天花疫苗）主要只有城市或城镇中的人才能接种，农村地区的士兵们暴露在疾病的威胁下。尽管19世纪人们通常认为城市人较为虚弱或软弱，但来自城市的士兵往往比农村士兵更能抵抗疾病。肺结核、麻疹、风湿病、伤寒、疟疾和天花在军队中肆意传播。

Civil War medicine focused almost exclusively on curing the patient rather than preventing disease. Many soldiers attempted to cure themselves by concocting elixirs and medicines themselves. These ineffective home remedies were often made from various plants the men found in woods or fields. There was no understanding of germ theory, so many soldiers did things that we would consider unsanitary today. They ate food that was improperly cooked and handled, and they practiced what we would consider poor personal hygiene. They did not take appropriate steps to ensure that drinking water was free from bacteria. Diarrhea and dysentery were common. These diseases were especially dangerous, as Civil War soldiers did not understand the value of replacing fluids as they were lost. As such, men affected by these conditions would weaken and become unable to fight or march, and as they became dehydrated their immune system became less effective, inviting other infections to attack the body. Through trial and error soldiers began to protect themselves from some of the more preventable sources of infection. Around 1862 both armies began to dig latrines rather than rely on the local waterways. Burying human and animal waste also cut down on exposure to diseases considerably.

内战时期的医学几乎完全专注于治病，而非预防疾病。许多士兵试图自己调配药水和药物来治病。这些无效的家庭疗法通常是由士兵们在树林或田野中找到的各种植物制作的。由于当时没有细菌学理论，许多士兵的做法今天看起来非常不卫生。他们吃的食物未经过适当的烹饪和处理，也没有注意个人卫生。他们没有采取有效的措施确保饮用水不含细菌。腹泻和痢疾在士兵中极为常见。这些疾病尤其危险，因为内战时期的士兵并没有意识到补充失去的水分有多么重要。结果，患病的士兵会变得虚弱，无法作战或行军，随着脱水加剧，他们的免疫系统也变得不再有效，易受其他感染攻击。通过不断的试验，士兵们开始采取一些预防措施来避免感染源。例如，在1862年左右，双方军队开始挖掘厕所，而不是依赖当地的水源。埋掉人类和动物的粪便显著减少了疾病的传播。

Medical surgery was limited and brutal. If a soldier was wounded in the torso, throat, or head, there was little surgeons could do. Invasive procedures to repair damaged organs or stem blood loss invariably resulted in death. Luckily for soldiers, only approximately one in six combat wounds were to one of those parts. The remaining were to limbs, which was treatable by amputation. Soldiers had the highest chance of survival if the limb was removed within forty-eight hours of injury. A skilled surgeon could amputate a limb in three to five minutes from start to finish. While the lack of germ theory again caused several unsafe practices, such as using the same tools on multiple patients, wiping hands on filthy gowns, or placing hands in communal buckets of water, there is evidence that amputation offered the best chance of survival.

外科手术受限且非常残酷。如果一名士兵的躯干、喉咙或头部受伤，外科医生几乎无能为力。修复受损器官或止血的侵入性手术通常会导致死亡。幸运的是，伤害这些部位的战斗伤害占比仅为六分之一。其余的伤害发生在肢体部位，这些伤害是可以通过截肢治疗的。士兵们在伤后48小时内截肢的生存率最高。一位熟练的外科医生可以在三到五分钟内完成截肢。尽管缺乏细菌学理论，导致许多不安全的做法（如用同一工具处理多个患者、在脏衣服上擦手，或将手放入共享的水桶中），但有证据表明，截肢是内战期间最有效的生存方式。

It is a common misconception that amputation was done without anesthesia and against a patient’s wishes. Since the 1830s, Americans understood the benefits of nitrous oxide and ether in easing pain. Chloroform and opium were also used to either render patients unconscious or dull pain during the procedure. Also, surgeons would not amputate without the patient’s consent.

这是一种常见的误解——认为截肢是在没有麻醉的情况下进行的，而且是违背患者意愿的。自1830年代起，美国人已经认识到一氧化二氮和醚在缓解疼痛方面的好处。氯仿和鸦片也被用于使患者失去意识或在手术过程中减轻痛感。此外，外科医生在进行截肢时不会不经过患者同意。

In the Union army alone, 2.8 million ounces of opium and over 5.2 million opium pills were administered. In 1862, William Alexander Hammon was appointed Surgeon General for the United States. He sought to regulate dosages and manage supplies of available medicines, both to prevent overdosing and to ensure that an ample supply remained for the next engagement. However, his guidelines tended to apply only to the regular federal army. Most Union soldiers were in volunteer units and organized at the state level. Their surgeons often ignored posted limits on medicines, or worse, experimented with their own concoctions made from local flora.

仅在联邦军中，就使用了2.8百万盎司的鸦片和超过520万颗鸦片药丸。1862年，威廉·亚历山大·哈蒙被任命为美国外科总长。他力图规范药物剂量并管理药品供应，既为了防止过量，也为了确保下一次作战时药品的充足。然而，他的指导方针主要适用于正规联邦军。大多数联邦士兵属于志愿部队，这些部队是在州一级组织的。许多州军的外科医生往往忽视药物剂量的规定，甚至更糟的是，他们根据当地植物调配自制药物。

In the North, the conditions in hospitals were somewhat superior. This was partly due to the organizational skills of women like Dorothea Dix, who was the Union’s Superintendent for Army Nurses. Additionally, many women were members of the United States Sanitary Commission and helped to staff and supply hospitals in the North.

在北方，医院的条件相对较好，这部分得益于像多萝西娅·迪克斯这样的人，她是联邦军的护士总监。此外，许多女性是美国卫生委员会的成员，协助管理和补给北方的医院。

Women took on key roles within hospitals both North and South. The publisher’s notice for Nurse and Spy in the Union Army states, “In the opinion of many, it is the privilege of woman to minister to the sick and soothe the sorrowing—and in the present crisis of our country’s history, to aid our brothers to the extent of her capacity.” Mary Chesnut wrote, “Every woman in the house is ready to rush into the Florence Nightingale business.” However, she indicated that after she visited the hospital, “I can never again shut out of view the sights that I saw there of human misery. I sit thinking, shut my eyes, and see it all.” Hospital conditions were often so bad that many volunteer nurses quit soon after beginning. Kate Cumming volunteered as a nurse shortly after the war began. She, and other volunteers, traveled with the Army of Tennessee. However, all but one of the women who volunteered with Cumming quit within a week.

无论是在北方还是南方，女性在医院中都扮演了关键角色。《联邦军队中的护士与间谍》一书的出版说明中写道：“在许多人看来，女性的特权是照顾病人，安慰悲伤的人——在我们国家历史的这一危机中，帮助我们的兄弟，尽其所能。”玛丽·切斯纳特写道：“家里的每个女人都准备好投身于佛罗伦斯·南丁格尔事业。”然而，她表示，在访问医院后，“我再也无法将所见的那些人类痛苦从视野中抹去。我坐着想着，闭上眼睛，看到的依旧清晰。”医院的条件通常如此恶劣，以至于许多志愿护士在开始工作后不久就辞职了。凯特·卡明在战争爆发后不久就加入了护士队伍。她和其他志愿者一起随田纳西军队行动。然而，除了她之外，其他所有女性在一周内都放弃了。

Death came in many forms; disease, prisons, bullets, even lightning and bee stings took men slowly or suddenly. Their deaths, however, affected more than their regiments. Before the war, a wife expected to sit at her husband’s bed, holding his hand, and ministering to him after a long, fulfilling life. This type of death, “the Good Death,” changed during the Civil War as men died often far from home among strangers. Casualty reporting was inconsistent, so a woman was often at the mercy of the men who fought alongside her husband to learn not only the details of his death but even that the death had occurred.

死亡以多种形式降临：疾病、监禁、子弹，甚至雷击和蜜蜂叮咬也能使人死亡。无论是怎样的死亡，它们不仅影响了士兵的连队。在战争前，妻子通常期望在丈夫床前陪伴他，握着他的手，照顾他度过漫长而充实的一生。这种死亡形式——“善终”——在内战中发生了变化，因为许多人死于远离家乡、身边是陌生人的地方。伤亡报告并不一致，许多妻子只能依赖丈夫战友的描述，了解丈夫死亡的细节，甚至知道他是否已死。

“Now I’m a widow. Ah! That mournful word. Little the world think of the agony it contains!” wrote Sally Randle Perry in her diary. After her husband’s death at Sharpsburg, Sally received the label she would share with more than two hundred thousand other women. The death of a husband and loss of financial, physical, and emotional support could shatter lives. It also had the perverse power to free women from bad marriages and open doors to financial and psychological independence.

“现在我成了寡妇。啊！这个悲伤的词，世人又怎能理解其中的痛苦！”萨莉·兰德尔·佩里在日记中写道。在她丈夫死于夏普斯堡后，萨莉与二十多万其他女性一样，成为了寡妇。丈夫的死和失去经济、身体与情感支持，往往使生活支离破碎。但它也有一种特殊的力量，帮助一些女性摆脱不幸的婚姻，获得财务和心理上的独立。

Widows had an important role to play in the conflict. The ideal widow wore black, mourned for a minimum of two and a half years, resigned herself to God’s will, focused on her children, devoted herself to her husband’s memory, and brought his body home for burial. Many tried, but not all widows were able to live up to the ideal. Many were unable to purchase proper mourning garb. Black silk dresses, heavy veils, and other features of antebellum mourning were expensive and in short supply. Because most of these women were in their childbearing years, the war created an unprecedented number of widows who were pregnant or still nursing infants. In a time when the average woman gave birth to eight to ten children in her lifetime, it is perhaps not surprising that the Civil War created so many widows who were also young mothers with little free time for formal mourning. Widowhood permeated American society. But in the end, it was up to each widow to navigate her own mourning. She joined the ranks of sisters, mothers, cousins, girlfriends, and communities in mourning men.

寡妇在战争中的角色至关重要。理想中的寡妇应当穿上黑色丧服，至少哀悼两年半，顺从上帝的意愿，专心照顾孩子，保持丈夫的记忆，并将其遗体带回家安葬。许多寡妇努力遵循这一理想，但并非所有人都能做到。许多寡妇无法购买适当的丧服，黑色丝绸长裙、沉重的面纱等丧服不仅昂贵而且稀缺。由于这些寡妇大多处于育龄阶段，战争造就了前所未有的寡妇，这些寡妇不仅年轻，还面临着怀孕或哺乳婴儿的情况。在当时，大多数女性一生会生育八至十个孩子，因此战争造就了大量年轻寡妇，许多人没有时间进行正式的哀悼。寡妇这一现象渗透到美国社会，但最终每个寡妇都必须独自面对和经历失去。她们加入了姐妹、母亲、亲戚、女友以及整个社区，和所有失去亲人的人共同哀悼。

By the fall of 1864, military and social events played against the backdrop of the presidential election of 1864. While the war raged on, the presidential contest featured a transformed electorate. Three new states (West Virginia, Nevada, and Kansas) had been added since 1860, while the eleven states of the Confederacy did not participate. Lincoln and his vice presidential nominee, Andrew Johnson (Tennessee), ran on the National Union Party ticket. The main competition came from his former commander, General George B. McClellan. Though McClellan himself was a “War Democrat,” the official platform of the Democratic Party in 1864 revolved around negotiating an immediate end to the Civil War. McClellan’s vice presidential nominee was George H. Pendleton of Ohio—a well-known “Peace Democrat.”

1864年秋，军事和社会事件的背景下也发生了总统选举。尽管战争还在继续，选举却展现了变化的选民结构。自1860年起，西弗吉尼亚、内华达和堪萨斯三州加入联邦，而南方的十一州没有参与。林肯和副总统候选人安德鲁·约翰逊（来自田纳西）代表国民联盟党参选。主要的竞争者是他曾经的指挥官乔治·B·麦克莱兰将军。尽管麦克莱兰自己是“战争民主党”成员，但民主党的官方立场主张立即结束内战。麦克莱兰的副总统候选人是来自俄亥俄州的乔治·H·彭德尔顿——一位著名的“和平民主党”成员。

On Election Day—November 8, 1864—Lincoln and McClellan each needed 117 electoral votes (out of a possible 233) to win the presidency. For much of the 1864 campaign season, Lincoln downplayed his chances of reelection and McClellan assumed that large numbers of Union soldiers would grant him support. However, thanks in great part to William Sherman’s capture of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, and overwhelming support from Union troops, Lincoln won the election easily. Additionally, Lincoln received support from more radical Republican factions and members of the Radical Democracy Party that demanded the end of slavery.

在选举日（1864年11月8日），林肯和麦克莱兰都需要117张选举人票（总共233张）才能赢得选举。在整个1864年的竞选过程中，林肯低估了自己连任的机会，而麦克莱兰则认为大量联邦士兵会支持他。然而，由于威廉·谢尔曼将军在1864年9月2日占领亚特兰大，以及联邦军队的强烈支持，林肯轻松赢得了选举。此外，林肯还得到了更激进的共和党派和激进民主党成员的支持，他们主张结束奴隶制。

In the popular vote, Lincoln defeated McClellan, 55.1 percent to 44.9 percent. In the Electoral College, Lincoln’s victory was even more pronounced: 212 to 21. Lincoln won twenty-two states, and McClellan only carried three: New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky.

在普选中，林肯以55.1%对44.9%的比例击败了麦克莱兰。在选举人团中，林肯的胜利更为显著：212票对21票。林肯赢得了22个州，而麦克莱兰只赢得了3个州：新泽西、特拉华和肯塔基。

In the wake of his reelection, Abraham Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address on March 4, 1865, in which he concluded:

在重新当选后，亚伯拉罕·林肯于1865年3月4日发表了他的第二次就职演说，其中他总结道：

With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation’s wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just, and a lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.
对任何人都不怀恶意；对所有人都心怀慈悲；坚持正确的信念，正如上帝赐予我们看到的正确，让我们继续努力，完成我们正在进行的工作；医治国家的创伤；照顾那些为战争而受苦的士兵、他们的遗孀和孤儿——为了实现并珍惜在我们之间以及与所有国家之间的公正持久的和平。

The years 1864 and 1865 were the very definition of hard war. Incredibly deadly for both sides, the Union campaigns in both the West and the East destroyed Confederate infrastructure and demonstrated the efficacy of the Union’s strategy. Following up on the successful capture of Atlanta, William Sherman conducted his March to the Sea in the fall of 1864, arriving in Savannah with time to capture it and deliver it as a Christmas present for Abraham Lincoln. Sherman’s path of destruction took on an even more destructive tone as he moved into the heart of the Confederacy in South Carolina in early 1865. The burning of Columbia, South Carolina, and subsequent capture of Charleston brought the hard hand of war to the birthplace of secession. With Grant’s dogged pursuit of the Army of Northern Virginia, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, effectively ending major Confederate military operations.

1864年和1865年，正是“硬战争”的真实写照。对双方来说，这些年份异常致命，联邦在东西战线的战役摧毁了南方的基础设施，展示了联邦战略的有效性。在成功占领亚特兰大之后，威廉·谢尔曼于1864年秋发起了“海上行军”，并及时抵达萨凡纳，将这座城市作为圣诞礼物献给亚伯拉罕·林肯。谢尔曼的毁灭之路在他进入南卡罗来纳州心脏地带时变得更加猛烈。1865年初，他烧毁了南卡罗来纳州的哥伦比亚市，并随后占领了查尔斯顿，将战争的铁腕带到了脱离联邦的发源地。随着格兰特紧追北维吉尼亚军队，李将军于1865年4月9日在阿波马托克斯法院向格兰特投降，标志着南方主要军事行动的结束。

To ensure the permanent legal end of slavery, Republicans drafted the Thirteenth Amendment during the war. Yet the end of legal slavery did not mean the end of racial injustice. During the war, formerly enslaved people were often segregated into disease-ridden contraband camps. After the war, the Republican Reconstruction program of guaranteeing the rights of Black Americans succumbed to persistent racism and southern white violence. Long after 1865, most Black southerners continued to labor on plantations, albeit as nominally free tenants or sharecroppers, while facing public segregation and voting discrimination. The effects of slavery endured long after emancipation.

为了确保奴隶制的法律终结，共和党在战争期间草拟了第十三修正案。然而，法律上奴隶制的结束并不意味着种族不公的终结。在战争期间，曾被奴役的人往往被隔离到传播疾病的“走私品”营地。战后，共和党的重建计划虽然承诺保障黑人美国人的权利，但最终屈服于持续的种族主义和南方白人暴力。1865年之后，许多南方的黑人继续在种植园上劳动，尽管名义上是自由的佃农或农场租户，却面临着公共隔离和选举歧视。奴隶制的影响在解放之后仍然持续了很长时间。

V. Conclusion

五、结论

As battlefields fell silent in 1865, the question of secession had been answered, slavery had been eradicated, and America was once again territorially united. But in many ways, the conclusion of the Civil War created more questions than answers. How would the nation become one again? Who was responsible for rebuilding the South? What role would African Americans occupy in this society? Northern and southern soldiers returned home with broken bodies, broken spirits, and broken minds. Plantation owners had land but not labor. Recently freed African Americans had their labor but no land. Formerly enslaved people faced a world of possibilities—legal marriage, family reunions, employment, and fresh starts—but also a racist world of bitterness, violence, and limited opportunity. The war may have been over, but the battles for the peace were just beginning.

随着1865年战场的寂静，脱离联邦的问题得到了回答，奴隶制被消除了，美国再次在领土上实现统一。然而，在许多方面，内战的结束带来了更多的问题而非答案。国家将如何重新团结？谁来负责重建南方？非裔美国人在这个社会中将扮演什么角色？北方和南方的士兵带着破碎的身体、破碎的精神和破碎的心灵回到了家乡。种植园主拥有土地却缺乏劳动力；刚刚获得自由的非裔美国人拥有劳动力却没有土地。曾经被奴役的人面临着一个充满可能性的世界——合法的婚姻、家庭重聚、就业和新的开始——但也面临着一个充满种族主义、怨恨、暴力和有限机会的世界。战争也许结束了，但为和平而战的斗争才刚刚开始。